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Xenobiotic. Natural substances that are foreign to the body.
Xeroradiograph. A picture of the body recorded on paper rather than on film. Also called a xerogram.

X-ray: 1. High-energy radiation with waves shorter than those of visible light. X-rays possess the properties of penetrating most substances (to varying extents), of acting on a photographic film or plate (permitting radiography), and of causing a fluorescent screen to give off light (permitting fluoroscopy). In low doses X-rays are used for making images that help to diagnose disease, and in high doses to treat cancer. Formerly called a Roentgen ray. 2. An image obtained by means of X-rays.

X-ray, PA. An X-ray picture in which the beams pass from back-to-front (posteroanterior). By contrast an AP (anteroposterior) film is one in which the rays pass through the body from front-to-back.

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Western blot hybridization, identifies and analyzes proteins or peptides.

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen. A German Physics. In 1896, He used the term ‘X-ray’ during a lecture he gave (X is the algebraic symbol of an unknown). Within months, systems were being devised to use X-rays for diagnosis. Roentgen won the first Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution.

William Coley; who in the late 1800s felt that the rate of cure after surgery had been higher before asepsis (and who injected bacteria into tumors with mixed results), cancer treatment became dependent on the individual art of the surgeon at removing a tumour.

William Stewart Halsted; In the 1880s and 1890s, He devised an extensive operation for breast cancer that entailed removal of the breast and underlying muscles, and lymph nodes under the arm. He eventually achieved an unprecedented 72 percent five-year cure rate for patients whose disease had not spread to adjoining glands.

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Vacuum-assisted biopsy. Vacuum pressure (suction) is used to pull the sample tissue through a specially designed hollow needle in this biopsy method. This gives the doctor the ability to collect multiple or larger samples from the same biopsy site without having to insert the needle more than once.

Vascular invasion; means that cancer cells are found in the blood vessels.

Villous adenoma. An adenoma in which leaf-like or finger-like processes of lamina propria covered by dysplastic epithelium comprise at least 80% of the tumour.

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Ultraviolet (UV) radiation; comes from the sun, sunlamps, and tanning booths. It causes early aging of the skin and skin damage that can lead to skin cancer.

Undifferentiated carcinoma. A malignant epithelial tumour with no glandular
structures or other features to indicate definite differentiation.

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Tamoxifen. A medicine that stops estrogen from reaching hormone receptors on cancers.

Thomas Beatson; graduated from the University of Edinburgh in 1874 and developed an interest in the relation of the ovaries to milk formation in the breasts, probably because he grew up near a large sheep farm in rural Scotland. In 1878 he discovered that the breasts of rabbits stopped producing milk after he removed the ovaries.

Tobacco smoking; is associated with many forms of cancer, and causes 90% of lung cancer.

Transformation: The concept that a low-grade tumor transforms to a high-grade tumor over time. Example: Richter's transformation.

Tubular adenoma. An adenoma in which branching tubules surrounded by lamina propria comprise at least 80% of the tumour.

Tubulovillous adenoma. An adenoma composed of both tubular and villous structures, each comprising more than 20% of the tumour.

Tumour (tumor). Literally, it means "a swelling"; an alternative definition is "a new growth of tissue in which the multiplication of cells is uncontrolled and progressive"; synonym: neoplasm.

Tumour margins. There are three possible findings when the biopsy sample is the entire tumour : Positive margins mean that cancer cells are found at the edge of the material removed, Negative; not involved, clear, or free margins mean that no cancer cells are found at the outer edge, Close margins are neither negative nor positive.

Tumours of the anal canal. Tumours that arise from or are predominantly located in the anal canal. The most frequent neoplams of this region are human papilloma virus (HPV-)associated squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas.

Tumour suppressor genes; are then inactivated in cancer cells, resulting in the loss of normal functions in those cells, such as accurate DNA replication, control over the cell cycle, orientation and adhesion within tissues, and interaction with protective cells of the immune system.

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Screening. A test done on healthy people to detect tumors before they become apparent. A mammogram is a screening test.

Sarcoma. "A tumour made up of a substance like the embryonic connective tissue"; sarcomas are malignant tumors of connective tissue origin (such as cartilage, bone and muscle).

Secondary tumours of the liver. Malignant neoplasms metastasized to the liver from extrahepatic primary tumours.

Serous cystadenocarcinoma. A malignant cystic epithelial neoplasm composed of glycogen-rich cells.

Serous cystic pancreatic tumours. Are cystic epithelial neoplasms composed of glycogen-rich, ductular-type epithelial cells that produce a watery fluid similar to serum. Most are benign (serous cystadenomas), either serous microcystic adenoma or serous oligocystic adenoma. Only very rare cases exhibit signs of malignancy (serous cystadenocarcinoma).

Serous microcystic adenoma. A benign neoplasm composed of numerous small cysts lined by uniform glycogen-rich cuboidal epithelial cells, disposed around a central stellate scar.

Serous oligocystic adenoma. A benign neoplasm composed of few, relatively large cysts, lined by uniform glycogen-rich cuboidal epithelial cells.

Serrated adenoma. An adenoma composed of saw-toothed glands

Signet-ring cell carcinoma. An adenocarcinoma in which the predominant component (more than 50%) is composed of isolated malignant cells containing intracytoplasmic mucin.

Solid-pseudopapillary neoplasm. A usually benign neoplasm with predominant
manifestation in young women, composed of monomorphic cells forming solid and pseudopapillary structures, frequently showing haemorrhagic-cystic changes and variably expressing epithelial, mesenchymal and endocrine markers.

Southern blot hybridization, detects specific DNA fragments.

Staging. This term refers to the process of determining how advanced a cancer is and if it has spread; we "stage" an animal through the use of tests such as x-rays, ultrasound, blood work, lymph nodes aspirates and bone marrow aspirates; this is helpful because it allows us to determine the best treatment options and to predict the outcome of treatment.

Stephen Paget (An English surgeon); devised a theory on cancer growth referred to as the "seed and soil theory". He theorized that metastatic tumor cells are like seeds, evenly distributed throughout the body through the bloodstream, but only grow in the organ (‘soil’) they find compatible. This laid the groundwork for a true understanding of metastasis.

Surgery; is the removal of a visible tumor and is the most frequently used cancer treatment. It is most effective when a cancer is small and confined to one area of the body.

Surgical biopsy. Unlike the needle methods described above, in a surgical biopsy, a surgeon makes an incision in the skin and removes some or all of the suspicious tissue. It is often used after a needle biopsy shows cancer cells, or it can be used as the first method to obtain tissue for diagnosis. There are two main categories of surgical biopsies.

Surgical excision. The removal of a tumour by a surgeon.

Surgical margins. The evaluation by a pathologist of the edges of the tissue removed by the surgeon to determine if the tumor was removed completely ("negative margins") or if tumor was left behind ("positive margins").

Small cell carcinoma. A malignant epithelial tumour similar in morphology,immunophenotype and behaviour to small cell carcinoma of the lung.

Stage. A number (usually on a scale of 4) established by the oncologist to describe the degree of invasion of the body by the tumor.

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Radiosensitizers; or chemical modifiers are substances that make cancer more sensitive to radiation. The goal of research into these types of substances is to develop agents that will make the tumor more sensitive without affecting normal tissues. Research is also ongoing to find substances that may protect normal cells from radiation.

Radon; is a radioactive gas that you cannot see, smell, or taste. It forms in soil and rocks. People who work in mines may be exposed to radon. In some parts of the country, radon is found in houses. People exposed to radon are at increased risk of lung cancer.

Recurrence. New tumors that appear at the site of the original tumor after surgery.

Retinoblastoma; when occurring in young children, is due to a hereditary mutation in the retinoblastoma gene.

Reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR); is a method of making many copies of a specific RNA sequence.

Robotoic surgery. This term refers to manipulation of surgical instruments remotely by robotic arms and other devices controlled by a surgeon. Robotic systems have been used for several types of cancer surgery; radical prostatectomy is among the most common application in surgical oncology.

Rudolf Virchow; often called the “founder of cellular pathology”, provided the scientific basis for the modern pathologic study of cancer. The 19th century saw the birth of scientific oncology with the discovery and use of the modern microscope.

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Palliative surgery. is aimed at curing the symptoms, not the cancer. Usually, in such cases, the tumor is so large or has spread so much, that removing the entire tumor is not an option.

Pancreatoblastoma. A malignant epithelial tumour, generally affecting young children, composed of well-defined solid nests of cells with acinar formations and squamoid corpuscles, separated by stromal bands. Acinar differentiation prevails, often associated with lesser degrees of endocrine or ductal differentiation.

(A) pathology report; is a document that contains the diagnosis determined by examining cells and tissues under a microscope. The report may also contain information about the size, shape, and appearance of a specimen as it looks to the naked eye. This information is known as the gross description.

(A) pathologist; is a doctor who does this examination and writes the pathology report. Pathology reports play an important role in cancer diagnosis and staging (describing the extent of cancer within the body, especially whether it has spread), which helps determine treatment options.

Percivall Pott; of London in 1775 described an occupational cancer of the scrotum in chimney sweeps caused by soot collecting under their scrotum. This led to identification of a number of occupational carcinogenic exposures and public health measures to reduce cancer risk.

Peutz-Jeghers polyp. A hamartomatous polyp composed of branching bands of smooth muscle covered by normal-appearing or hyperplastic glandular mucosa indigenous to the site.

Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS). is an inherited cancer syndrome with autosomal dominant trait, characterized by mucocutaneous melanin pigmentation and hamartomatous intestinal polyposis, preferentially affecting the small intestine. Associated extra-intestinal neoplasms are less common and include tumours of the ovary, uterine cervix, testis, pancreas and breast.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR); is a method of making many copies of particular DNA sequences of relevance to the diagnosis.
Positive margins; means that cancer cells come up to the edge of the normal tissue around the tumor.

(Real-time) PCR or (quantitative) PCR; is a method of measuring how many copies of a particular DNA sequence are present.

Polyp. A generic term for any excrescence or growth protruding above a mucous membrane. Polyps can be pedunculated or sessile, and are readily seen by macroscopic examination or conventional endoscopy.

Pre-cancerous; A tumor that is not considered a cancer; it is a warning sign that you may get cancer in the future.

Preventive surgery. Preventive or prophylactic surgery involves removal of an abnormal looking area that is likely to become malignant over time. For example, about 40% of the people with a colon disease known as ulcerative colitis, ultimately die of colon cancer. Rather than live with the fear of developing colon cancer, these people may choose to have their colons removed and reduce the risk significantly.

Prognosis. The probability of cure after the therapy. It is usually expressed as a probability of survival five years after diagnosis. Alternatively, it can be expressed as the number of years when 50% of the patients are still alive. Both numbers are derived from statistics accumulated with hundreds of similar patients to give a Kaplan-Meier curve.

Protocol. They usually use this term to refer to the specific chemotherapy plan that is used (for example, the "Weekly Sequential protocol" is what we commonly use for treating lymphosarcoma); it can also refer to the overall treatment plan.

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Oncology/Oncologist; is the field that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of cancer while an oncologist is a doctor that specializes in this field (veterinarians can become board-certified in either medical oncology or radiation oncology by completing a residency and passing several certifying exams).

Oncogenes; are mutated forms of genes that cause normal cells to grow out of control and become cancer cells. They are mutations of certain normal genes of the cell called proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes are the genes that normally control how often a cell divides and the degree to which it differentiates (or specializes).

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Nanotechnology. New technology for producing new materials that form extremely tiny particles is leading to very promising methods for diagnostic imaging to more accurately demonstrate the location of tumors, and for delivering drugs more specifically and effectively into cancer cells.

Nixon (President of United states); declared "War on Cancer" in 1971. Since 1971 the United States has invested over $200 billion on cancer research; that total includes money invested by public and private sectors and foundations.

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Malignant. "Having the properties of anaplasia, invasion and metastasis" (these are all characteristics of a tumour that make it capable of causing the death of a patient); a malignant tumour is one which is no longer resembles the cells it was derived from, is invasive at the site where it starts and has the ability to metastasize (or spread) to other organs.

Margins. This is a term used to refer to the edges of the surgical specimen; "clean margins" means that no tumour cells are visible at the edges (sometimes tumours come back despite clean margins); "dirty margins" means that tumour cells are visible at the edges (therefore, tumor cells have been left behind).

Marie Curie (1867–1934); the discoverer of x rays, died of a cancer caused by prolonged exposure to radiation.

Median survival time. A period of time, often measured in months or years, over which 50% of the cancer patients are expected to be alive.

Medullary carcinoma. A malignant epithelial tumour in which the cells form solid sheets and have abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm and large, vesicular nuclei with prominent nucleoli. An intraepithelial infiltrate of lymphocytes is characteristic.

Mesenchymal tumours of the small intestine. A variety of benign and malignant mesenchymal tumours can arise in the small intestine, but the neoplasms that occur in any appreciable numbers are gastrointestinal stromal tumours (GISTs).

Metastasis. "The transfer of disease from one organ or part to another not directly connected to it"; metastasis is the process by which the tumor spreads from one location to another; the most common sites of metastasis are the lungs or lymph nodes; the most common routes of metastasis are the bloodstream and the lymphatics.

Metastatic lesion. The term used for the site of spread.

Medullary. A type of invasive cancer that grows into the normal tissue around it.

Milk ducts; tiny tubes in the breast through which milk flows to the nipple.

Mucinous cystic neoplasms of the pancreas. Cystic epithelial neoplasms occurring almost exclusively in women, showing no communication with the pancreatic ductal system and composed of columnar, mucin-producing epithelium, supported by ovarian-type stroma. According to the grade of intraepithelial neoplasia (dysplasia), tumours may be classified as adenoma, borderline (low-grade malignant) and non-invasive or invasive carcinoma.

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Leiomyosarcoma, a malignant tumour featuring differentiated smooth muscle cells, is rare in the oesophagus. In a recent series, such tumours comprised 4% of all combined smooth muscle and stromal tumours. They were large tumours that presented in older adults, and all patients died of disease.

Liposomal therapy; is a new technique that uses chemotherapy drugs that have been packaged inside liposomes (synthetic fat globules). This liposome, or fatty coating, helps them penetrate the cancer cells more selectively and decreases possible side effects (such as hair loss, nausea, and vomiting). Examples of liposomal medications are Doxil (the encapsulated form of doxorubicin) and Daunoxome (the encapsulated form of daunorubicin).

Lobular Carcinoma In Situ (LCIS). Cells that are not normal but that stay inside the milk-making part of the breast.

Louis Leakey; found the oldest possible hominid malignant tumor in 1932 from the remains of either a Homo erectus or an Australopithecus. This tumor was suggestive of a Burkitt’s lymphoma (although that nomenclature was certainly not in use then). Diseases that we know to be rare cancers today have had a long history.

Lymphatic invasion; means that cancer cells are found in the lymph vessels.

Lymph nodes. Filters along the lymph fluid channels; they try to catch and trap cancer cells before they reach other parts of the body.

Lymphangioma. is a benign tumour characterized by multiple endothelial-lined spaces that vary in size from capillary channels to large, cystic spaces containing lymph. The vascular spaces are lined by a single layer of endothelial cells, though papillary projections or tufting may be seen.

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Ki-67 Test. A test that shows how fast cancer is growing.

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Janet Lane-Claypon; who published a comparative study in 1926 of 500 breast cancer cases and 500 control patients of the same background and lifestyle for the British Ministry of Health.

John Hill; first recognized an environmental cause from the dangers of tobacco use in 1761 and published a book “Cautions Against the Immoderate Use of Snuff”.

John Hunter (1728-1793); suggested that some cancers might be cured by surgery and described how the surgeon might decide which cancers to operate on. If the tumor had not invaded nearby tissue and was "moveable," he said, "There is no impropriety in removing it."

Juvenile polyposis (JP). is a familial cancer syndrome with autosomal dominant trait, characterized by multiple juvenile polyps of the gastrointestinal tract, involving predominantly the colorectum, but also the stomach and the small intestine. In addition to colorectal cancer, JP patients carry an increased risk for the development of tumours in the stomach, duodenum, biliary tree and pancreas.

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Image-guided biopsy. An image-guided biopsy is a procedure in which the doctor uses imaging technology, such as ultrasound, fluoroscopy, CT scan, x-ray, or MRI scan, to determine the exact location from which the tissue sample will be removed for analysis.

Immunotherapy; uses the body's own immune system to destroy cancer cells. This form of treatment is being intensively studied in clinical trials and is not yet widely available to most cancer patients.

Incisional biopsy; removes a piece of the suspicious area for examination. An incisional biopsy may be used for soft tissue tumors, such as those arising from muscle or fat, to distinguish between benign lumps and cancerous tumors called sarcomas.

In situ. A cancer that stays inside the part of the breast where it started; it usually does not spread.

Intestinal T-cell lymphoma. A peripheral T-cell lymphoma arising in the intestine, usually as a complication of coeliac disease (gluten sensitive enteropathy), histologically characterised by differentiation towards the intestinal intraepithelial T-cell phenotype.

Intraductal papillary-mucinous neoplasms of the pancreas. An intraductal papillary mucin-producing neoplasm, arises in the main pancreatic duct or its major branches. The papillary epithelium component, and the degree of mucin secretion, cystic duct dilatation, and invasiveness are variable. Intraductal papillary-mucin neoplasms are divided into benign, borderline, and malignant non-invasive or invasive lesions.

Intraepithelial neoplasia (dysplasia); associated with chronic inflammatory diseases. A neoplastic glandular epithelial proliferation occurring in a patient with a chronic inflammatory bowel disease, but with macroscopic and microscopic features that distinguish it from an adenoma, e.g. patchy distribution of dysplasia and poor circumscription.

Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. An intrahepatic malignant tumour composed of cells resembling those of bile ducts. Intrahepatic (or peripheral) cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) arises from any portion of the intrahepatic bile duct epithelium, i.e. from intrahepatic large bile ducts (the segmental and area ducts and their finer branches) or intrahepatic small bile ducts. Cholangiocarcinoma arising from the right and left hepatic ducts at or near their junction is called hilar cholangiocarcinoma and is considered an extrahepatic lesion.

Intraoperative radiation therapy (IORT); is a form of treatment that delivers radiation at the time of surgery directly to the cancer or the adjacent tissues after the cancer has been removed. It is more commonly used in abdominal or pelvic cancers and in cancers that have a tendency to return.

Invasive. A cancer that spreads beyond the place where it started.

Invasive Ductal Carcinoma (IDC). A cancer that begins in the milk duct but grows into the normal breast tissue around it.

Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC). A cancer that starts inside the milkmaking gland, but grows into the normal breast tissue around it.

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Hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses. Liver cancer can develop after many years of infection with hepatitis B or hepatitis C.

Hepatoblastoma. A malignant embryonal tumour with divergent patterns of differentiation, ranging from cells resembling fetal epithelial hepatocytes, to embryonal cells, and differentiated tissues including osteoid-like material, fibrous connective tissue and striated muscle fibers.

Hepatocellular carcinoma. A malignant tumour derived from hepatocytes. Most common aetiological factors are viral infections (HBV, HCV), dietary aflatoxin B1 ingestion and chronic alcohol abuse.

Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC, Lynch syndrome). is an autosomal dominant disorder, characterized by the development of colorectal carcinoma, endometrial carcinoma,and cancer of the small intestine, ureter, or renal pelvis.

High-grade intraepithelial neoplasia. A mucosal change with cytologic and architectural features of malignancy but without evidence of invasion into the stroma. It includes lesions termed severe dysplasia and carcinoma in situ.

Hyperplastic polyposis. Multiple or large hyperplastic (metaplastic) polyps of the large intestine, typically located proximally, and often exhibiting familial clustering.

Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.). A Greek physician. He used the Greek words, carcinos and carcinoma to describe tumours, thus calling cancer "karkinos." The Greek terms actually were words to describe a crab, which Hippocrates thought a tumor resembled. Although Hippocrates may have named "Cancer," he was certainly not the first to discover the disease. The history of cancer actually begins much earlier.

Hormone receptors; tiny areas like ears on cells that listen and respond to signals from hormones.

Hormone therapy; is standard treatment for some types of cancers that are hormone-dependent and grow faster in the presence of particular hormones. These include cancer of the prostate, breast, and uterus. Hormone therapy involves blocking the production or action of these hormones.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. People who have HIV infection are at greater risk of cancer, such as lymphoma and a rare cancer called Kaposi's sarcoma.

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8). This virus is a risk factor for Kaposi's sarcoma.

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs). HPV infection is the main cause of cervical cancer. It also may be a risk factor for other types of cancer.

Human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus (HTLV-1). Infection with HTLV-1 increases a person's risk of lymphoma and leukemia.

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Galen (130-200 A.D.). A Roman physician, used the word oncos (Greek for swelling) to describe tumours.

Gastric carcinoma. A malignant epithelial tumour of the stomach mucosa with glandular differentiation. Its aetiology is multifactorial; most commonly it develops after a long period of atrophic gastritis.

[Primary] gastric lymphomas. are defined as lymphomas originating from the stomach and contiguous lymph nodes. Lymphomas at this site are considered primary if the main bulk of disease is located in the stomach. The majority of
gastric lymphomas are high-grade B-cell lymphomas, some of which have developed through progression from low-grade lymphomas of mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). The lowgrade lesions are almost exclusively B-cell MALT lymphomas.

Gene. Part of the body’s code for making new cells and controlling the growth and repair of the cells.

Germ cell tumour. Tumours derived from totipotent cells. In adults most often found in the testicle and ovary; in fetuses, babies, and young children most often found on the body midline, particularly at the tip of the tailbone; in horses most often found at the poll (base of the skull).

Giovanni Morgagni; of Padua was the first (in 1761) to perform autopsies to relate the patient's illness to their pathologic findings postmortem. Cancer could now be detected, albeit after death.

Grading. This term refers to the evaluation of microscopic features of a tumour that allows the pathologist to assign the tumor "a grade"; the grade of a tumour is important because it allows us to predict how aggressive a tumour will be

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Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by numerous adenomatous colorectal polyps that have an intrinsic tendency to progress to adenocarcinoma. It is caused by a germline mutation in the Adenomatous Polyposis Coli (APC) gene which is located on the long arm of chromosome 5 (5q21-22). Gardner syndrome is a variant of FAP that includes epidermoid cysts, osteomas, dental anomalies and desmoid tumours, in addition to colorectal adenomas. Turcot syndrome is a variant that is associated with a brain tumour (medulloblastoma). An attenuated FAP form has been distinguished from classic FAP, where the number of adenomas is less than 100 in the colon.

Fine needle aspiration biopsy. A fine needle biopsy may be the first type of biopsy done on tumors that can be felt by the doctor. The doctor uses a very thin, hollow needle in a syringe to gather a small amount of fluid and cells from the suspicious area.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH); determines the positions of particular genes. It can be used to identify chromosomal abnormalities and to map genes.

Frances Peyton Rous (1879–1970). In 1910, He isolated a virus from a cancer in chickens (a sarcoma) that caused new sarcomas to develop when infected into healthy chickens. Rous's work languished for over 50 years until he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1966. By this time, methods for the study of viruses and cancer had improved considerably and many new animal derived viruses were found to cause cancer in a range of species.

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Eat well. A healthy diet includes plenty of foods that are high in fiber, vitamins, and minerals. This includes whole-grain breads and cereals and 5 to 9 servings of fruits and vegetables every day. Also, a healthy diet means limiting foods high in fat (such as butter, whole milk, fried foods, and red meat).

Endocrine tumours of the oesophagus. are rare and include carcinoid (well differentiated endocrine neoplasm), small cell carcinoma (poorly differentiated endocrine carcinoma), and mixed endocrine-exocrine carcinoma.

Endocrine tumours of the small intestine. exhibit site-related differences, depending on their location in the duodenum and proximal jejunum or in the distal jejunum and ileum. They include carcinoid tumours (well differentiated neoplasms of the diffuse endocrine system), small cell carcinomas (poorly differentiated endocrine neoplasms) identical to small cell carcinomas of the lung and malignant large cell neuroendocrine carcinomas.

Endocrine tumours of the stomach. Most endocrine tumours of the stomach are well differentiated, nonfunctioning enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cell carcinoids arising from oxyntic mucosa in the corpus or fundus. Three distinct types have are recognized: (1) Type I, associated with autoimmune chronic atrophic gastritis (A-CAG); (2) type II, associated with muliple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN-1) and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (ZES); type III, sporadic, i.e. not associated with hypergastrinaemia or A-CAG.

Endoscopic biopsy. Endoscopes are tubes with cameras that doctors use to view the inside of body, including the bladder, abdomen, joints, or gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Endoscopes can be inserted through the mouth or a tiny surgical incision.

Endoscopic ultrasonography. is used to evaluate both depth of tumour infiltration and para-oesophageal lymph node involvement in early and advanced stages of the disease {1509, 1935}.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Infection with EBV has been linked to an increased risk of lymphoma.

ER-negative. A cancer that does not have estrogen receptors.

ER-positive. A cancer that has estrogen receptors.

Excisional biopsy; removes the entire lump. An excisional biopsy, which was more common prior to the development of fine needle aspiration, may be used for enlarged lymph nodes or breast lumps or in situations where the lump is small enough to be easily completely removed in one procedure.

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Diagnosis. The confirmation of the cancerous nature of a lump. This usually requires a biopsy or removal of the tumour by surgery, followed by examination by a pathologist.

Diethylstilbestrol (DES). A form of estrogen, was given to some pregnant women in the United States between about 1940 and 1971. Women who took DES during pregnancy may have a slightly higher risk of developing breast cancer. Their daughters have an increased risk of developing a rare type of cancer of the cervix. The possible effects on their sons are under study.

Ductal adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. A carcinoma occurring almost exclusively in adults that probably arises from and is phenotypically similar to, pancreatic duct epithelia, with mucin production and expression of a characteristic cytokeratin pattern.

Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS). A non-invasive cancer that stays inside the milk pipes and usually doesn’t spread.

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Cancer; (medical term: malignant neoplasm) is a class of diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled growth (division beyond the normal limits), invasion (intrusion on and destruction of adjacent tissues), and sometimes metastasis (spread to other locations in the body via lymph or blood).

Carcinoid. A well differentiated neoplasm of the diffuse endocrine system.

Carcinoma. "A malignant growth made of epithelial cells tending to infiltrate the surrounding tissues and give rise to metastasis"; epithelial cells "line" body surfaces.

Carcinoma of the gallbladder and extrahepatic bile ducts. A malignant epithelial tumour with glandular differentiation, arising in the gallbladder or extrahepatic biliary system.

Carcinoma of the small intestine. A malignant epithelial tumour of the small
intestine. Neoplasms of the periampullary region include those of the duodenal mucosa, ampulla of Vater, common bile duct and pancreatic ducts.

Celsus (28-50 B.C.) A Roman physician, later translated the Greek term into cancer, the Latin word for crab.

Chemotherapy; is the use of drugs to more specifically kill cancer cells. It destroys the hard-to-detect cancer cells that have spread and are circulating in the body. Chemotherapeutic drugs can be taken either orally (by mouth) or intravenously, and may be given alone or in conjunction with surgery, radiation, or both.

Clean margins: means that the normal tissue around the tumor is free of cancer cells

Colloid. A type of invasive cancer that grows into the normal tissue around it; it usually grows slowly.

Combined hepatocellular and cholangiocarcinoma. A rare tumour containing unequivocal elements of both hepatocellular and cholangiocarcinoma that are intimately admixed. This tumour should be distinguished from separate hepatocellular carcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma arising in the same liver {605}. Such tumours may be widely separated or close to each other (‘collision tumour’).

Comedo. A type of non-invasive cancer that usually does not spread; it tends to grow fast.

Core needle biopsy. The size of the syringe needle used in a core needle biopsy is larger than the one in a fine needle biopsy, so that a cylinder of tissue can be obtained. If a fine needle biopsy cannot provide a definitive diagnosis, the doctor may want to do a core needle biopsy. Core biopsies are often performed instead of fine needle aspiration biopsies because they provide more tissue to review.

Choriocarcinoma. An aggressive tumour, associated with elevated levels of serum human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG), composed of cytotrophoblastic cells intermingled with syncytiotrophoblastic cells immunoreactive for hCG. Choriocarcinoma can be ‘pure’ or associated with mucinous cystadenocarcinoma.

Cowden syndrome (CS). is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by multiple hamartomas involving organs derived from all three germ cell layers.The classical hamartoma associated with CS is the trichilemmoma. Affected family members have a high risk of developing breast and non-medullary thyroid carcinomas. Clinical manifestaions further include mucocutaneous lesions, thyroid abnormalities, fibrocystic disease of the breast, gastrointestinal hamartomas, early-onset uterine leiomyomas, macrocephaly, mental retardation and dysplastic gangliocytoma of the cerebellum (Lhermitte-Duclos). The syndrome is caused by germline mutations of the PTEN / MMAC1 gene.

Cribriform: a type of non-invasive cancer that does not spread and usually grows slowly.

Cure. A cancer patient is "cured" if they live past the time by which 95% of treated patients live after the date of their diagnosis of cancer. For example in the case of Hodgkin's disease this period of time is 10 years, whereas for Burkitt's lymphoma this period would be 1 year. The phrase "cure" used in oncology is based upon the statistical concept of a median survival time and disease-free median survival time.

Cycle. Chemotherapy drugs are often given in the same order on the same schedule repeatedly; the term "cycle" refers to the basic plan that gets repeated over and over again; the cycle is different for each chemotherapy protocol.

Cytology. This refers to the microscopic examination of cells that have been removed from the body (either by aspiration or by other techniques).

Cytoreductive surgery; is a procedure where the doctor removes as much of the cancer as possible, and then treats the remaining with radiation therapy or chemotherapy or both.

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The terms used to describe cancer in word list; B












Benign. opposite of malignant; benign tumors are unlikely to spread, unlikely to cause the death of a patient and have a favorable outcome (however, there are a few exceptions where benign tumors behave more like malignant ones).

Bile duct cystadenoma and cystadenocarcinoma. A cystic tumour either benign (cystadenoma) or malignant (cystadenocarcinoma), lined by epithelium with papillary infoldings that may be mucus-secreting or, less frequently, serous. Lesions arise from ducts proximal to the hilum of the liver. They differ from tumours that arise in cystic congenital malformation and in parasitic infections and hepatolithiasis.

Biologic behavior. This refers to how a tumor is likely to behave (for example, how likely it is to metastasize, where are the common sites of metastasis and how invasive is it at the site where it starts).

Biopsy. "The removal and examination, usually microscopic, of tissue from the living body, performed to establish a precise diagnosis"; when we "biopsy" something, it means that we remove a piece of tissue to look at under the microscope (we also use the term to refer to the sample we have obtained); a biopsy is crucial in making a diagnosis of cancer.

Bone marrow biopsy. A bone marrow biopsy is used to determine if a person has a blood disorder or a blood cancer, including leukemia and multiple myeloma. It can also be used to find out if a cancer that originated in another part of the body has spread to the bone marrow. The doctor uses a large, rigid needle to go through a bone, often the back of the hip bone, and into the marrow in order to gather a sample. A core biopsy of the bone may also be performed at the same time.

Breast cancer; is called ductal carcinoma of the breast or mammary ductal carcinoma. Here, the adjective ductal refers to the appearance of the cancer under the microscope, resembling normal breast ducts.

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The terms used to describe cancer in word list; A

Acinar cell carcinoma. A carcinoma occurring mainly in adults, composed of relatively uniform neoplastic cells that are arranged in solid and acinar patterns and produce pancreatic enzymes.

Abnormal cells: cells that do not look or act like the healthy cells of the body.

Adenoma. A circumscribed benign lesion composed of tubular and/or villous structures showing intraepithelial neoplasia. The neoplastic epithelial cells are immature and typically have enlarged, hyperbasophilic and stratified nuclei.

Adenocarcinoma. A malignant epithelial tumour with glandular differentiation.

Adenocarcinoma of the appendix. A malignant epithelial neoplasm of the appendix with invasion beyond the muscularis mucosae.

Adenocarcinoma of the oesophagus. A malignant epithelial tumour of the oesophagus with glandular differentiation arising predominantly from Barrett mucosa in the lower third of the oesophagus. Infrequently, adenocarcinoma originates from heterotopic gastric mucosa in the upper oesophagus, or from mucosal and submucosal glands.

Adenocarcinoma of the oesophagogastric Junction. Adenocarcinomas that straddle the junction of the oesophagus and stomach are called tumours of the oesophagogastric (OG) junction. This definition includes many tumours formerly called cancers of the gastric cardia. Squamous cell carcinomas that occur at the OG junction are considered carcinomas of the distal oesophagus, even if they cross the OG junction.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). is a potent liver carcinogen in several animal species as well as in humans. It is produced by the moulds Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus which under hot and humid conditions in tropical countries typically contaminate grain, particularly ground nuts (peanuts).

Alfred Knudson. He is an American pediatrician and scientist. In the early 1970s, at the Fox Chase Cancer Center studied retinoblastoma, a rare childhood eye cancer that is sometimes inherited but is most often sporadic. He observed that children who had inherited retinoblastoma often had the cancer at birth, and were at high risk of developing multiple cancers in both eyes.

Anaplastic/Undifferentiated. "A loss of differentiation of cells and of their orientation to one another"; tumours that are anaplastic are usually considered very malignant and aggressive.

Angiogenesis; is the creation of new blood vessels. The term comes from 2 Greek words: angio, meaning "blood vessel," and genesis, meaning "beginning."

Aromatase inhibitor: medicine that reduces estrogen in the body (after menopause).

Aspiration; "The removal of fluid or gases from a cavity by suction"; when we "aspirate" something, we place a needle (which is attached to a syringe) into a tissue and draw back on the syringe; cells are thus dislodged from the tissue into the needle and syringe; we can then spread these cells onto a slide so that they can be stained and examined under the microscope.

Avicenna (Ibn Sina). He stated that the excision should be radical and that all diseased tissue should be removed, which included the use of amputation or the removal of veins running in the direction of the tumour. He also recommended the use of cauterization for the area being treated if necessary.

Axillary lymph nodes; lymph nodes under your arms.